Classifying Science
Phenomena, Data, Theory, Method, Practice

Classification is the essential first step in science. This book defines science to include the social sciences and humanities. It is unpacked into its constituent elements: the phenomena studied, the data used, the theories employed, the methods applied, and the practices of scientists. These five elements are then classified in turn.

The classifications also support a superior system of document classification that would allow searches by theory and method used as well as causal links investigated.

List of Tables vii
Preface ix

Chapter 1: Classifying Science 1
1.1. A Simple Classificatory Guideline 3
1.2. The First "Cut" (and Plan of Work) 5
1.3. Some Preliminaries 9

Chapter 2: Classifying Phenomena and Data 23
2.1. Classifying Phenomena 23
2.2. Classifying Data 45

Chapter 3: Classifying Theory 51
3.1. Typology of Theory 55
3.2. What Is a Theory? 74
3.3. Evaluating Theories 78
3.4. Types of Theory and the Five Types
of Causation 80
3.5. Classifying Individual Theories 82
3.6. Advantages of a Typology of Theory 95

Chapter 4: Classifying Method 99
4.1. Classifying Methods 101
4.2. Typology of Strengths and Weaknesses
of Methods 103
4.3. Qualitative Versus Quantitative Analysis
Revisited 109
4.4. Evaluating Methods 113
4.5. Classifying Particular Methods Within
The Typology 116
4.6. Advantages of a Typology of Methods 144


Chapter 5: Classifying Practice 155
5.1. Errors and Biases in Science 158
5.2. Typology of (Critiques of) Scientific
Practice 161
5.3. Utilizing This Classification 192
5.4. The Five Types of Ethical Analysis 194

Chapter 6: Drawing Connections Across
These Classifications 199
6.1. Theory and Method 199
6.2. Theory (Method) and Phenomena (Data) 203
6.3. Better Paradigms 208
6.4. Critiques of Scientific Practice: Are They
Correlated with Other Classifications? 213

Chapter 7: Classifying Scientific Documents 217
7.1. Faceted or Enumerative? 219
7.2. Classifying By Phenomena Studied 221
7.3. Classifying By Theory Used 225
7.4. Classifying By Method Used 227
7.5 Links Among Subjects 228
7.6. Type of Work, Language, and More 229
7.7. Critiques of Scientific Practice 230
7.8. Classifying Philosophy 231
7.9. Evaluating the System 232

Chapter 8: Concluding Remarks 239
8.1. The Classifications 239
8.2. Advantages of These Various Classifications 241
8.3. Drawing Connections Across Classifications 245
8.4. Golden Mean Arguments 247
8.5. Why Should Science Be Believed? 249
8.6. How Can Science Be Improved? 250
8.7. How Should Science Be Taught? 259

References 269
Index 279